cmd/go: implement Go checksum database support

cmd/go: implement Go checksum database support

This CL adds support for consulting the Go checksum database
when downloading a module that is not already listed in go.sum.
The overall system is described at golang.org/design/25530-sumdb,
and this CL implements the functionality described specifically in
golang.org/design/25530-sumdb#command-client.

Although the eventual plan is to set GOPROXY and GOSUMDB to
default to a Google-run proxy serving the public Go ecosystem,
this CL leaves them off by default.

Fixes #30601.

Change-Id: Ie46140f93c6cc2d85573fbce0878a258819ff44d
Reviewed-on: https://go-review.googlesource.com/c/go/+/173951
Run-TryBot: Russ Cox <rsc@golang.org>
Reviewed-by: Emmanuel Odeke <emm.odeke@gmail.com>
Reviewed-by: Jay Conrod <jayconrod@google.com>
TryBot-Result: Gobot Gobot <gobot@golang.org>